Battle Of Marathon

In the Time of ancient history, the Battle of Marathon, fought in September 490 BCE, stands as a testament to the indomitable spirit of the Greek city-states. This clash between the Greeks and the invading forces of the Persian king, Darius I, marked a pivotal moment when the Greeks displayed their courage, excellence, and fervent desire for liberty. While the victory at Marathon would only temporarily impede the Persian imperialistic ambitions, it became an enduring symbol of Greek resistance, echoed through the ages in art, literature, sculpture, architecture, and pottery.

Under the rule of Darius I, Persia had already cast its expanding shadow across mainland Europe, subjugating regions like Ionia, Thrace, and Macedonia by the early 5th century BCE. Athens and the rest of Greece found themselves next on King Darius' ambitious agenda. The motives behind Persia's coveting of Greece remain shrouded in historical ambiguity. While wealth and resources seem improbable drivers, plausible explanations include the desire to enhance the king's prestige domestically or to quell potential rebellious states on the western fringes of the empire. The memory of the Ionian rebellion, the symbolic submission to the Persian satrap in 508 BCE, and the Athenian and Eretrian attack on Sardis in 499 BCE lingered as unresolved grievances. In 491 BCE, Darius dispatched envoys to demand Greek submission to Persian rule. Unperturbed, the Greeks responded by executing the envoys and forming an alliance between Athens and Sparta for the defense of Greece. Darius retaliated with a formidable naval force of 600 ships and 25,000 men, positioning Persia at the doorstep of mainland Greece. The stage was set for a historic confrontation.

The year 490 BCE witnessed the convergence of Persian might and Greek resolve at the plain of Marathon. Darius, absent in person, entrusted the overall command to Datis, with Artaphernes, his nephew, assuming a secondary role, possibly leading the Persian cavalry. Although the total strength of the Persian army remains unclear, the fleet of 600 ships suggests a formidable force, numbering around 90,000 men. The actual fighting force, estimated at 20,000-25,000 men, included a predominant archer contingent and a cavalry force of approximately 2,000. On the Greek side, leadership rested with either the Athenian Polemarch Kallimachos or Miltiades, who brought valuable insights from his previous service under Darius in Scythia. The Greek force, comprised of 9,000 Athenian hoplites and 1,000 Plataeans under Arimnestos, faced a numerically superior adversary.

The Battle of Marathon not only witnessed the clash of two mighty armies but also exemplified the stark contrast in their approaches to classical warfare. The Persian forces, boasting superior numbers and a formidable reputation, relied on long-range assaults utilizing archers, complemented by swift cavalry charges. In stark contrast, the Greek strategy favored heavily-armored hoplites organized in the densely packed formation known as the phalanx. Each Greek warrior, equipped with a substantial round bronze shield, engaged in close-quarters combat using spears and swords.

The Persian infantry carried lightweight wicker shields (spara) and wielded a combination of a long dagger or curved sword (kopis), a short spear, and a composite bow. The defensive barrier was formed by those bearing shields (sparabarai), while archers unleashed volleys of arrows from behind. The Persian forces also included elite spear-bearers (aristabara), organized in 1,000-strong units (hazarbam). Dressed in lighter armor than the hoplites, these warriors wore tunics, sometimes adorned with bronze scales or leather cuirasses, along with patterned trousers, boots, and a soft hood. Persian cavalry mirrored the infantry's armament, armed with bows and two additional javelins for throwing and thrusting. Operating on the flanks, the cavalry aimed to exploit the disarray of opposing infantry after enduring repeated archer salvos. While the spectacle of vast arrow volleys could be awe-inspiring, the lightness of the arrows posed limited effectiveness against the bronze-armored hoplites. In close combat, the hoplites held the advantage with longer spears, heavier swords, superior armor, and the disciplined structure of the phalanx formation. However, the Persians, armed with superior numbers and bolstered by their formidable reputation, presented a daunting challenge.

The Persian forces, under Datis, initially landed at Karystos and Eretria in northern Euboea, leaving destruction in their wake. The subsequent move across the strait led them to the eastern end of the bay of Marathon on September 1st and 2nd. Marathon, chosen for its favorable terrain for cavalry units and abundant water sources, set the stage for the impending conflict. The sheltered Kynosoura peninsula served as the Persian camp, providing strategic advantages for both men and horses. Upon discovering the invasion point, the Athenian strategoi engaged in deliberations regarding whether to confront the invaders. Opting for direct confrontation, the Greeks, upon reaching Marathon on September 3rd or 4th, established their camp near the sanctuary of Hercules at the bay's western end. The Plataeans joined their Athenian allies, while the Spartans, renowned for their martial prowess, were delayed due to their involvement in the sacred Karneia festival. Details of the battle, like many of its contemporaries, remain sketchy and subject to contradictions among ancient sources. On September 11th, the Greeks arranged their battle lines in the bay's center, while the Persians had only half of their infantry embarked. With eight men deep in the front, the Greeks matched the Persians' length and thinned out their center group to four men deep. Positioned on the right flank, the Plataeans, Athenians in the center, and the left flank formed the Greek ranks.

The Greek strategy sought to envelop the Persians as they advanced in the center. Balancing the need to prevent a narrower front than the Persians, which would expose the phalanx formation, the Greeks positioned themselves strategically. The Persian and Sakai troops, possibly as many as ten men deep, commanded from the center. With lines stretching 1,500 meters, the two armies stood merely 1,500 meters apart, ready to decide the fate of Marathon.

As the Greek and Persian forces converged on the plain of Marathon, a pivotal clash unfolded, leaving an indelible mark on history. Yet, amidst the chaos, the enigmatic absence of the Persian cavalry perplexes both ancient sources and modern historians. Theories abound, suggesting obstacles posed by sporadic trees on the plain hindered their effective deployment. Alternatively, some propose a strategic diversion, with Datis potentially directing the cavalry towards Athens, either to seize the city during the Greeks' absence or entice them into battle before the awaited Spartan reinforcements arrived. The two armies finally collided, with the Greeks covering the final 400 meters under relentless fire from Persian archers. A brutal and protracted struggle ensued, revealing a predictable outcome—the weakened Greek center pushed back by the relentless advance of the Persian forces. However, the tide turned on the flanks, where Greek resilience triumphed, driving the Persians backward. The once-formidable lines disintegrated into a confused melee, marking a turning point.

With the Persian left and right flanks in full retreat, the defeated forces fled toward their awaiting ships. Yet, a significant obstacle lay in their path—a wide, marshy area demanding careful navigation. In the tumultuous retreat, the Greek wings closed in, launching attacks on both the Persian center and the fleeing flanks. The result was devastating, with heavy casualties inflicted on the retreating Persians. Amidst the chaos, Kallimachos, a key figure in the Greek victory, fell in battle. The Greeks, seizing the moment, captured seven Persian ships, a tangible symbol of their triumph. Traditionally, the accounts depict a staggering contrast in casualties, with 6,400 Persians claimed by the battle, compared to a mere 192 Greeks. While the Persian forces suffered a severe blow, Datis remained undeterred, setting sail for Cape Sounion in an audacious attempt to attack Athens. The exhausted Greek army, alerted to this perilous development, embarked on a forced march back to defend their city.

Back at Marathon, rituals and commemorations unfolded in the aftermath of the victory. The fallen were cremated and buried on-site, a distinctive practice, leaving a visible burial mound. A commemorative column trophy rose in tribute, its fragments preserved in the Archaeological Museum of Marathon. Sacrifices, including 500 goats to Artemis Agrotera, expressed gratitude to the gods. This ritual persisted for four centuries, underscoring the enduring impact of the Battle of Marathon. In Athens, statues and dedications honored the fallen hero, Kallimachos. Phidias, the renowned sculptor, immortalized the victory through bronze sculptures at Delphi and the Athenian acropolis, celebrating Apollo, Artemis, and Miltiades. A temple to Artemis Eukleia emerged in Athens, further immortalizing the triumph. Marathon became the subject of intricate sculptures on the Temple of Athena Nike in Athens, capturing the essence of the battle.

The victory at Marathon echoed through the ages, intertwined with legends that offered mythical explanations for the Greeks' triumph. Tales of the intervention of Pan and visions of the heroic Theseus during battle permeated the narrative. Veterans proudly displayed a bull of Marathon on their shields, a symbol of their participation in the historic victory. Despite Greek euphoria, the Persians remained undeterred. Within a decade, King Xerxes revived their imperial ambitions, leading to the infamous invasion of 480 BCE. However, Marathon served as a catalyst, buying time for subsequent victories at Salamis and Plataea, ultimately concluding the Persian Wars in Greece.

Herodotus weaved another enduring tale into Marathon's legacy—the saga of Phidippides, a long-distance messenger. Sent to seek Spartan aid before the battle, Phidippides covered an astounding 240 km, a feat later commemorated in the Marathon race of the modern Olympics. Fittingly, the first marathon race, held in 1896 CE, was won by a Greek, Spiridon Louis, preserving the spirit of ancient Greek sporting ideals and the historic Battle of Marathon.