The Iberians, known as Hibērī in Latin and Ἴβηρες in Greek, were a fascinating ancient people who inhabited the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula from at least the 6th century BC. Their rich history is chronicled in Greek and Roman sources, shedding light on a distinctive culture shaped by influences from the Phoenicians and Greeks.

The term "Iberian" held dual meanings in ancient times. In a broader sense, it encompassed all populations of the Iberian Peninsula, regardless of ethnic distinctions. In a more specific sense, which we delve into here, it referred to those residing along the eastern and southern coasts, influenced by Phoenician and Greek cultures. This culturally diverse group spoke the Iberian language from the 7th to at least the 1st century BC.
While the Iberians dominated the eastern and southern regions, other groups inhabited the northern, central, and northwestern areas. Vascones, Celts, Celtiberians, Lusitanians, Vettones, and Turdetani, possibly Pre-Celtic or Proto-Celtic Indo-Europeans, coexisted, contributing to the rich tapestry of the Iberian Peninsula.
From the 5th century BC onward, Iberian soldiers became notable figures in battles across Italy, Greece, and especially Sicily. Their military prowess became renowned, showcasing their significance on the broader stage of ancient history.
The Iberian culture flourished from the 6th century BC, evolving in the eastern and southern regions. Villages and oppida, fortified settlements, were characteristic of their communities, organized tribally. The Spanish Levant Iberians were notably more urbanized than their counterparts in the central and northwestern regions.

Leading up to Carthaginian and Roman conquests, Iberian settlements experienced a surge in social complexity, reflecting evidence of social stratification and urbanization. Trading contacts with the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians likely played a role. By the late 5th and early 4th centuries BC, an aristocracy emerged, accompanied by a clientele system.Several key settlements provide glimpses into the Iberian way of life. Castellet de Banyoles in Tivissa, discovered in 1912, and the 'Treasure of Tivissa,' a unique collection of silver votive offerings, offer valuable insights. Lucentum and Castelldefels Castle are also recognized as ancient Iberian settlements, as is the Mausoleum of Pozo Moro near Chinchilla de Monte-Aragón in Castile-La Mancha. Sagunto stands as a testament to the Iberian and Roman influence, with a significant fortress built in the 5th century BC.

The Iberians, a people first mentioned by Greek colonists in the 6th century BC, inhabited the region south of the Ebro River, according to the Greek definition. It's essential to note that the term "Iberians" also applied to another group in the Caucasus, now known as Caucasian Iberians, and there seems to be no connection between the two. Engaging in extensive trade with Mediterranean cultures, the Iberians left their mark on pottery and metalwork found in France, Italy, and North Africa. They had significant interactions with Greek colonists in Spanish settlements, influencing their artistry. Notable statues like the Lady of Baza and the Lady of Elx are believed to be crafted by Iberians familiar with Greek artistic techniques. Additionally, the Iberians established connections with the Phoenicians, who had colonies in southern Andalucia. Phoenician influence was significant, with Gadir (later Gades or Cádiz) being their first colony in 1100 BC. Phoenician influence extended to other regions, including Malaka (Málaga), Sexi, and Abdera. In 324 BC, emissaries from the Iberians approached Alexander the Great, expressing a desire for friendship, indicating their geopolitical awareness. The Second Punic War marked a turning point when Carthage sought to control the Iberian Peninsula due to the war debt incurred after the First Punic War. Hamilcar Barca initiated this conquest, followed by Hasdrubal the Fair. Hannibal took charge after Hasdrubal's assassination, completing the subjugation of Iberians south of the Ebro, leading to the Second Punic War. Rome, responding to Carthaginian influence, dispatched Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio to conquer Iberia. After initial successes, including defeating Carthaginian allies, Tarraco's capture, and naval victories, the Scipio brothers faced setbacks. However, Publius Scipio Africanus turned the tide, securing victories at Carthago Nova and the Battle of Ilipa. Post the Carthaginian defeat, Rome divided Iberian territories into Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior. Subsequent revolts in 197 BC led to Rome's conquest of Lusitania and Celtiberia. The northern regions saw prolonged campaigns until the Cantabrian Wars concluded in 16 BC, solidifying Roman control over the Iberian Peninsula.

Iberian culture unveils a society structured into diverse classes, comprising kings or chieftains, nobles, priests, artisans, and slaves. A noble council, often referred to as a "senate," played a crucial role in decision-making, while kings or chieftains maintained their forces through a system of obligation known as "fides," a concept familiar to the Romans. Influenced by Greek practices, the Iberians embraced wine and olives. Horse breeding held special significance for the Iberians, particularly among the nobility. Their economy thrived on mining, especially in regions like Gader and Cartago Nova for silver, the Ebro valley for iron, and exploitation of tin and copper deposits. The Iberians showcased their craftsmanship through fine metalwork, producing high-quality iron weapons like the distinctive falcata.Art and religion flourished hand in hand for the Iberians. Sculptures in stone and bronze, often influenced by Greek, Phoenician, Assyrian, Hittite, and Egyptian cultures, adorned the landscape. Geographically, Iberian sculpture styles divided into Levantine, Central, Southern, and Western groups. Notably, the Levantine group exhibited the most significant Greek influence. Iberian pottery and painting showcased distinct characteristics. Geometric forms in red dominated pottery decoration, occasionally featuring figurative images, especially in regions like Murcia to the south of Catalonia. Iberian polytheistic religious practices bore traces of Greek and Phoenician influences. Sculptures depicted mythological creatures reminiscent of the eastern Mediterranean, such as the man-bull Bicha of Balazote and sphinxes. Deities from Phoenician and Greek pantheons, like Tanit, Baal, Melkart, Artemis, Demeter, and Asclepius, found worship among the Iberians. Notable native deities included the healing deity "Betatun" and the earth and regeneration goddess linked to birds, flowers, and wheat, portrayed by the Lady of Baza. A sanctuary dedicated to horses emphasized the significance of the horse in Iberian religious beliefs.Iberians conducted their rituals in open spaces and maintained sanctuaries in revered locations like groves, springs, and caves. Archaeological evidence suggests the existence of a priestly class, and Strabo mentioned a celebratory ritual dance known as the "Bastetania dance." The confrontation between the deceased and a wolf figure was a common theme in Iberian mythology. Ritual sacrifice of animals played a role in their religious practices, offering a glimpse into their myth and ritual through pottery depictions. In Iberian eschatology, death symbolized the beginning of a journey guided by supernatural and mythical beings like the Sphinx or the wolf. Incineration of the dead, placement of ashes in ceremonial urns, and subsequent interment in stone tombs marked their burial practices, showcasing a profound connection between life, death, and the spiritual realm.

Iberian warriors played pivotal roles in the ancient battles between Carthage and Rome, often serving as mercenaries and auxiliary troops. A considerable portion of Carthaginian forces during the Punic wars comprised Iberians and Celtiberians. The nature of Iberian warfare was marked by intertribal raiding and pillaging, showcasing a relentless and cunning approach. In set-piece battles, the Romans observed the Iberian tactic of charging and retreating, expertly hurling javelins and shouting at opponents without fully engaging in close combat—a strategy the Romans termed concursare. Ambushes and guerrilla tactics were hallmarks of Iberian military strategy. Two major types of Iberian infantry were distinguished in ancient sources: scutati and caetrati. Scutati, heavily armored, wielded large Italic-style scutum shields, while caetrati used the small Iberian buckler known as caetra. The Iberian arsenal included renowned weapons like the Gladius Hispaniensis, the curved falcata sword, straight swords, spears, javelins, and an all-iron spear named Soliferrum. Iberian horsemen, mounted on excellent wild horses native to Spain, formed a crucial component of Iberian and Carthaginian armies, boasting some of the finest cavalry in the ancient Mediterranean.

The Iberians inhabited the eastern and southern coastal regions of the Iberian Peninsula, encompassing present-day Catalonia, Eastern and Northeastern Aragon, Valencian Community, Murcia Region, Eastern Andalucia, the Balearic Islands (in Spain), and parts of Roussillon and Languedoc (in France). While the term "Iberians" initially denoted specific ethnic and linguistic groups, it was later extended to all inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula.

The Iberian language, a paleohispanic language, became extinct by the 1st to 2nd centuries AD, gradually supplanted by Latin. Despite being unclassified and non-Indo European, connections with Messapic, Basque, Etruscan, and Minoan Linear A have been suggested. The origin of the Iberian language remains debated. According to the Catalan theory, it originated in northern Catalonia and expanded north and south. Iberians employed three distinct scripts to represent their language: the Northeastern Iberian script, Dual variant (4th and 3rd centuries BC), Non-dual variant (2nd and 1st centuries BC), and the Southeastern Iberian script with the Greco-Iberian alphabet. These scripts, categorized as semi-syllabaries, presented signs with syllabic value for occlusives and monofonematic value for other consonants and vowels. The common origin of these scripts remains a topic of debate among researchers, with some attributing it solely to the Phoenician alphabet and others suggesting the involvement of the Greek alphabet.