Indus Valley Civilization

The names Harappan and Indus-Sarasvati are modern labels, and the civilization's origin, development, and ultimate decline remain shrouded in mystery. Although the people of this civilization are believed to have developed a writing system called the Indus Script or Harappan Script, it remains undeciphered to this day.

Modern archaeology has proposed a plausible chronology and periodization for the Indus Valley Civilization:

• Pre-Harappan – c. 7000 - c. 5500 BCE
• Early Harappan – c. 5500 - 2800 BCE
• Mature Harappan – c. 2800 - c. 1900 BCE
• Late Harappan – c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE
• Post Harappan – c. 1500 - c. 600 BCE

While the Indus Valley Civilization is now often compared to the well-known cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the awareness of its existence came much later. The discovery of Harappa in 1829 CE marked the first indication of such a civilization in India. It's noteworthy that by this time, Egyptian hieroglyphics had been deciphered, and both Egyptian and Mesopotamian sites extensively excavated.

The civilization's best-known cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, boasted populations of 40,000-50,000—an extraordinary feat considering ancient cities typically housed around 10,000 residents. The Indus Valley Civilization's total population is estimated to have exceeded 5 million, covering a vast territory of over 900 miles along the Indus River. Between 1900 and 1500 BCE, the civilization began a decline for reasons that remain elusive. The once-popular Aryan Invasion Theory, suggesting an invasion from the north, has been discredited. Scholars now believe in a peaceful migration of Aryans who blended their culture with the indigenous population. The decline may be attributed to factors such as climate change, the drying of the Sarasvati River, shifts in monsoon patterns, overpopulation, or dwindling trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia. In the present day, ongoing excavations at various sites continue to unravel the mysteries of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The intriguing tale of the Indus Valley Civilization begins with the discovery of its ruins in the 19th century CE. James Lewis, better known as Charles Masson, a British soldier, played a pivotal role. Deserting the East India Company Army in 1827 CE, Masson embarked on a journey through India, eventually stumbling upon the ancient site of Harappa in 1829 CE. In a twist of irony, Masson wrongly attributed the city to Alexander the Great in his notes. His adventures and findings, documented in his 1842 CE book, caught the attention of Alexander Cunningham, a key figure in Indian archaeology. Alexander Cunningham, a British engineer with a passion for ancient history, founded the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1861 CE. The ASI aimed to maintain professional standards in excavation and historic site preservation. Cunningham initiated excavations at Harappa in 1875 CE, where he identified and named the mysterious Indus Script. However, his interpretations lacked depth due to the site's isolation from any known past civilization. In 1904 CE, a new director of the ASI, John Marshall, took the helm. Visiting Harappa, Marshall concluded that the site represented an ancient civilization previously unknown. He ordered comprehensive excavations and, simultaneously, learned of another site called Mohenjo-daro, known locally as "the mound of the dead." Excavations at Mohenjo-daro commenced in the 1924-1925 season, revealing striking similarities between the two sites. The grand unveiling of the Indus Valley Civilization had begun.

Challenging initial misconceptions driven by systemic racism, scholars initially viewed Harappa as a potential Sumerian or Egyptian outpost. However, the architecture told a different story. Spanning 370 acres, both cities exhibited no evidence of traditional temples, palaces, or monumental structures. Instead, a grid pattern of small brick houses with clay roofs dominated the landscape. A sophisticated urban planning layout, flush toilets, an advanced sewer system, and a groundbreaking drainage system showcased a level of civilization unmatched in its time. The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization boasted remarkable engineering feats. Structures with "wind catchers," akin to Persian technology, provided ancient air conditioning. Mohenjo-daro featured a grand public bath surrounded by a courtyard, showcasing meticulous planning and architectural prowess. The overall sophistication and skill displayed at these sites suggested a highly advanced culture with a centralized government and an efficient bureaucracy. Between 1944-1948 CE, under the direction of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, excavations continued at both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Despite Wheeler's racialist ideology, he laid the foundation for the periodization of the Indus Valley Civilization, establishing a stratigraphy for Harappa. These excavations marked a crucial phase in unraveling the rich tapestry of an ancient civilization that had been meticulously planned and constructed by a people whose achievements rivaled, if not surpassed, those of their contemporaries.

Wheeler's meticulous work not only unveiled the secrets of the Indus Valley Civilization but also provided a chronological roadmap spanning its inception to its enigmatic decline. This timeline, rooted in physical evidence and trade interactions with Egypt and Mesopotamia, unravels the fascinating story of a civilization lost in the sands of time.

Pre-Harappan – c. 7000 - c. 5500 BCE: The Cradle of Civilization:

The journey begins in the Neolithic period with sites like Mehrgarh, showcasing the roots of agricultural development, animal domestication, and tool and ceramic production.

Early Harappan – c. 5500-2800 BCE: Trade Routes and Urban Beginnings:

Firmly establishing trade with Egypt, Mesopotamia, and possibly China, communities build ports, docks, and warehouses near waterways. Small villages lay the groundwork for future urban marvels.

Mature Harappan – c. 2800 - c. 1900 BCE: Cities Rising, Flourishing, and Multiplying:

Harappa and Mohenjo-daro stand as testaments to the pinnacle of urbanization around 2600 BCE. A wave of construction sees the creation of over 1,000 cities, all sharing a common blueprint of sophistication and meticulous planning.

Late Harappan – c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE: The Twilight of a Civilization:

A period marked by decline, coinciding with the migration of the Aryan people from the north. Climate change, floods, droughts, famine, and the loss of trade connections contribute to the unraveling of the once-thriving civilization.

Post Harappan – c. 1500 - c. 600 BCE: The Echoes of Abandonment:

Cities stand deserted as people migrate southward. By 530 BCE, the civilization has already fallen, leaving its legacy embedded in the pages of history.

Indus Civilization: Aspects of Culture

In the shadow of these monumental timelines lies a captivating glimpse into the lives of the Indus Valley people. In contrast to other contemporary cultures, this civilization lacked standing armies, palaces, or temples. The absence of these structures raises questions about their societal organization and governance.

Artisans, Farmers, and Merchants: A People of Trade:

With no evidence of a standing army, the people thrived as artisans, farmers, and merchants. The intricate soapstone seals, barely over an inch in diameter, hint at their use for personal identification in trade, echoing the role of Mesopotamian cylinder seals.

Urban Planning Marvels and Agricultural Expertise:

The cities, masterpieces of urban planning, showcased flush toilets, a sewer system, and an elaborate drainage system surpassing even Roman engineering. Agriculture thrived with irrigation techniques, canals, and designated areas for cattle and crops.

Fertility Rituals and Enigmatic Deities:

Figurines, amulets, and statuettes portraying female forms suggest fertility rituals, possibly linked to a Mother Goddess deity. Speculations arise about a male consort depicted as a horned figure in the company of wild animals.

Mysteries Encased in Bronze and Soapstone:

The artistic prowess of the Indus Valley people shines through their statuary, soapstone seals, ceramics, and jewelry. The "Dancing Girl" and the "Priest-King" stand as testament to their skill and creativity.

Unraveling the Script: The Enigmatic Indus Script:

Over 60 percent of personal seals feature what appears to be a unicorn. Intriguingly, these seals also bear markings interpreted as the Indus Script. The purpose of this ancient writing, whether familial, political, or personal, remains an unsolved puzzle.

As we traverse the ancient landscapes of the Indus Valley Civilization, the final chapters of its history remain veiled in uncertainty. The decline, marked by the abandonment of flourishing cities between c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE, opens the door to a myriad of theories, each weaving a different narrative into the rich tapestry of the past. The story begins with the Gaggar-Hakra River, synonymous with the Vedic Sarasvati River, potentially drying up around 1900 BCE. This environmental upheaval forced a significant relocation of the population that relied on its waters. Major flooding, indicated by extensive silting at Mohenjo-daro, stands as another contender for the decline. A disruption in trade, tied to the troubles of Mesopotamia and Egypt during the Middle Bronze Age, presents yet another layer to this complex narrative. In the early 20th century CE, a controversial theory emerged - the Aryan Invasion Theory. Scholars, influenced by Western interpretations of Vedic literature, proposed that a superior race of light-skinned Aryans invaded and conquered the land, driving the indigenous people southward. This theory gained traction, perpetuated by racialist ideologies and, notably, the misinterpretations of Max Muller, who insisted on a linguistic, not ethnic, distinction. The term "Aryan," originally denoting a class of people and self-identified as such by early Iranians, took a dark turn in the hands of European racists. The Aryan Invasion Theory, tainted by racialist agendas, was wielded to justify supremacist ideologies, notably influencing figures like Richard Wagner and, ultimately, contributing to the ideologies of Hitler's Nazi regime. In the 1960s CE, the Aryan Invasion Theory faced scrutiny and eventual discrediting. American archaeologist George F. Dales meticulously reviewed Wheeler's interpretations, visiting the sites and finding no evidence supporting the theory. Skeletal remains interpreted as victims of violence showed no signs of battle, and the cities displayed no war-related damage. Contrary to the invasion narrative, scholars now propose a different perspective. The so-called "Aryan Invasion" might have been a peaceful migration of Indo-Iranians, merging harmoniously with the indigenous population, intermarrying, and assimilating into the existing culture. This peaceful coexistence challenges the earlier aggressive invasion narrative. As ongoing excavations peel back the layers of time, the Indus Valley Civilization's true history and achievements come to light. Recognized as one of the three greatest ancient civilizations alongside Egypt and Mesopotamia, its prominence is destined to rise further.