Khitan People

The Khitan people, a semi-nomadic tribe from the steppes of Mongolia and Manchuria, established the Liao dynasty, which ruled parts of Mongolia, Manchuria, and northern China from 907 to 1125 CE. Despite their nomadic roots, the Khitans adopted elements of Chinese governance and culture, proving to be formidable rivals to both the Song dynasty of China and the Goryeo kingdom of Korea. Their approach to conquest and assimilation laid a blueprint that would be emulated more successfully by the later Mongol Empire.

The Khitans were a collection of semi-nomadic tribes under the leadership of the Yelu clan, roaming the plains of Mongolia and Manchuria from the 5th century CE. Their society thrived on a combination of steppe pastoralism and agriculture, while their military prowess was largely due to their exceptional horsemanship. The first significant leader of the Khitans was Yelu Abaoji (872-926 CE), who united several tribes into a confederation and proclaimed himself Emperor Taizu in 907 CE, founding the Liao dynasty. Breaking from tradition, Taizu established a hereditary system of succession, replacing the previous practice of electing leaders for limited terms.

Under Taizu's leadership, the Khitans expanded their territory through strategic conquests. In 926 CE, they conquered the Bohai people of the Balhae state with the help of Chinese military leaders and administrators. This victory led to the establishment of a new kingdom, Dongtan, with Taizu's son as its ruler. The Khitans' ambitions extended further under their second emperor, Taizong (r. 927-947 CE), who led successful campaigns southward, capturing 16 Chinese commanderies beyond the Great Wall. Despite the rise of the Song dynasty in 960 CE, which brought some stability to China, the Khitans continued to exert pressure, forcing the Song emperors into a tributary relationship through the Treaty of Shanyuan in 1004 CE. This treaty required the Song to pay an annual tribute of silver and silk, effectively acknowledging the Khitan ruler as an emperor and limiting the construction of border fortifications.

The Khitans also extended their influence eastward, subjugating the Jurchen tribes of Manchuria between 983 and 985 CE. Their interactions with the Goryeo dynasty of Korea (918-1392 CE) were marked by hostility. In 942 CE, King Taejo of Goryeo rejected a Khitan embassy's gift of camels, setting the stage for future conflicts. Tensions escalated in 994 CE when the Khitan Emperor Shenzong (r. 982-1031 CE) launched expeditions into Korean territory, overwhelming Goryeo's defenses. Despite a temporary victory by the Koreans at the Battle of Kwiju in 1018 CE, the Khitans maintained their dominance, securing tribute payments from Goryeo and establishing trade relations that persisted despite ongoing hostilities.

The Liao dynasty was marked by a dual system of governance that reflected the Khitans' semi-nomadic heritage and their adaptation of Chinese administrative practices. The empire was divided into five regions, each with its own capital, including Shangjin (modern Harbin) in the sparsely populated north and Nanjing (modern Beijing) in the prosperous south. While the southern regions of the Liao empire adopted Chinese culture, including the imperial administrative system and civil service examinations, the northern regions retained traditional Khitan customs. The Khitan emperors, all from the Yelu clan, practiced a unique system of duality in governance, where the emperor's consorts were exclusively chosen from the Xiao clan. This practice ensured a balance of power within the imperial household, maintaining harmony between the clans. Despite their wealth, the Khitan rulers continued to demonstrate their nomadic roots by regularly moving between their various capitals and engaging in traditional activities like hunting.

Unlike the Chinese, who often regarded commerce as a lesser occupation, the Khitans actively supported merchants and trade. They engaged in extensive trade networks across Asia, exchanging goods such as sheep, horses, furs, and slaves for silver, silk, tea, cotton, and luxury items. The Khitans adopted Buddhism as their principal religion, sponsoring the construction of temples, monasteries, and the production of printed Buddhist texts. However, traditional beliefs like shamanism and divination continued to coexist with Buddhism, influencing Khitan rituals and art. This blend of cultural influences was evident in the production of highly ornamented saddles, gold stirrups, and tent-shaped funerary urns, which were significant in Khitan culture.

By the early 12th century, the Liao dynasty faced increasing threats from the Jurchen, a subject tribe in northeastern China. The Jurchen, ancestors of the Manchurians, established their own state, the Jin dynasty, under the leadership of Aguda, who declared himself emperor in 1115 CE. The Jin's territorial ambitions led to a military alliance with the Song dynasty, which sought to weaken the Liao. In 1120-21 CE, the Jin forces attacked Jehol (Rehe), the Liao's supreme capital, leading to the dynasty's collapse in 1125 CE. The remnants of the Khitan army, led by Yelu Dashi (1087-1143 CE), a member of the royal family, fled westward to Central Asia, where they established the Khara Khitai (Western Liao) dynasty. However, this new state was short-lived, eventually falling to the rising Mongol Empire in the early 13th century.

The Liao dynasty's legacy lies in its successful blending of nomadic and Chinese cultures, its model of governance, and its impact on subsequent empires, particularly the Mongols. The Khitans' ability to conquer and assimilate diverse peoples, while maintaining their own cultural identity, set a precedent for future empires in the region. Despite their eventual decline, the Khitan people left an indelible mark on the history of East Asia.