Liao Dynasty

The Liao Dynasty, also known as the Khitan Empire, stands as an intriguing chapter in the tapestry of Chinese history. Spanning from 916 to 1125, this imperial dynasty, ruled by the Yelü clan of the Khitan people, carved out a significant realm that stretched across Northeast China, the Mongolian Plateau, parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern regions of the Russian Far East, and the northern tip of the North China Plain.
The Liao Dynasty emerged during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Tang Dynasty. Rooted in the consolidation of Khitan power during the 8th century, the dynasty officially took shape in 916 under the leadership of Abaoji, the Yila chieftain. Abaoji's proclamation marked the establishment of a Chinese-style dynastic state, and the Liao Dynasty soon embarked on a series of military campaigns, expanding its influence over neighboring states and peoples.

Military Exploits and Diplomacy

The Liao Dynasty's military campaigns were extensive, encompassing conflicts with various entities such as the Kumo Xi, Shiwei, Tatars, Zubu, Khongirad, Balhae, Goryeo, Later Tang, and the Song Dynasty. Notable among these conquests was the acquisition of the Sixteen Prefectures, including present-day Beijing, through a proxy war that contributed to the downfall of the Later Tang (923–936). In 1004, the Liao Dynasty engaged in a significant expedition against the Northern Song Dynasty, resulting in the Chanyuan Treaty. This diplomatic agreement forced the Northern Song to recognize the Liao Dynasty as peers, ushering in an era of approximately 120 years of peace and stability between the two powers. The Liao Dynasty's influence extended to being the first state to control all of Manchuria.

The Liao Dynasty grappled with internal challenges arising from the clash between traditional Khitan social and political practices and the influence of Han customs. Succession crises were a recurring theme, as Liao emperors favored Han concepts of primogeniture, while the Khitan elite leaned towards traditional methods of succession based on the strongest candidate. To navigate this tension, Abaoji established two parallel governments. The Northern Administration adhered to traditional Khitan practices, while the Southern Administration embraced traditional Han governmental methods. This delicate balancing act sought to maintain stability within the diverse territories under Liao rule.

Downfall and Legacy

The Jurchen-led Jin Dynasty dealt a decisive blow to the Liao Dynasty in 1125, capturing Emperor Tianzuo. Despite this fall, remnants of Liao loyalists, led by Yelü Dashi, established the Western Liao dynasty (Qara Khitai) in Central Asia, enduring for nearly a century before succumbing to the Mongol Empire. The Liao Dynasty's cultural contributions are noteworthy, with artifacts and statuary attesting to its influence. However, questions linger over the extent of its impact on subsequent developments, especially in the realms of music and theater.

Names and Identity

The dynasty underwent name changes, reflecting shifts in its composition and identity. From "Great Khitan" to "Great Liao" and back, the names captured the dynamic interplay between Khitan and non-Khitan elements within the state. The term "Khitai" even found its way to medieval Europe as "Cathay," perpetuating the cultural legacy of the Liao Dynasty. The etymology of "Liao" remains a subject of debate among historians. Some propose a link to the Khitan word for "iron," while others suggest a connection to the Liao River catchment, the traditional homeland of the Khitan people.

The roots of the Khitan people, who later gave rise to the influential Liao Dynasty, are shrouded in the mist of ancient history. The earliest references to a Khitan state are found in historical records such as the Book of Wei, a comprehensive account of the Northern Wei dynasty completed in 554. Beyond this point, multiple sources written after 554 shed light on the Khitans' activities during the late third and early fourth centuries.

Sinologists Denis C. Twitchett and Klaus-Peter Tietze propose that the Khitans emerged from the Yuwen branch of the Xianbei people. The Xianbei suffered a defeat at the hands of another branch in 345, leading to the formation of the Kumo Xi, one of the three resulting tribes. In 388, the Kumo Xi itself divided, with one group retaining the name Kumo Xi and the other evolving into the Khitans. While some suggested a Xiongnu origin, modern historians argue for a mixed Xianbei and Xiongnu heritage. Later theories even proposed a Mongolic origin.

Following their split from the Yuwen, the Khitans and Kumo Xi sought refuge in the Songmo region. Over time, their territorial boundaries shifted, facing challenges from the Rouran Khaganate, Goguryeo, and neighboring Chinese dynasties. By 554, the Khitans had established a state in present-day Jilin and Liaoning Provinces. Living in the frigid Northern Desert, the Khitans embraced animal husbandry, hunting, and fishing for sustenance. Their wealth lay in horses, and their strength was their skilled soldiers. The nomadic lifestyle involved seasonal migrations using horse-drawn carts, reflecting a symbiotic relationship between the Khitans and their environment.

The Khitans comprised eight tribes: Xiwandan, Hedahe, Fufuyu, Yuling, Rilian, Piqie, Li, and Tuliuhan. These tribes shared power through a system of rotating leadership every three years. Despite presenting tribute to various neighboring entities, including the Northern Wei and Northern Yan, the Khitans faced military defeats and internal strife.

Dahe Confederation: Military Advancements and Unification

During the Sui dynasty, the Khitan military structure advanced, culminating in the formation of the Dahe Confederation. This federation, led by the Dahe clan, could mobilize 34,000 troops by the early 7th century. The Dahe Confederation united the Khitan tribes, replacing the rotational leadership system with "Shixuan," where leaders were elected based on talent from the Dahe lineage. The Tang Dynasty era witnessed Khitan submission and incorporation into the Chinese administrative system. However, tensions arose, leading to a rebellion in 696, famine, and eventual Tang control reassertion by 714. Internal conflicts ceased after unification under the Dahe.

The Rebellion of Ketuyu (730 CE)

In the intricate tapestry of Khitan history, the year 730 marks a significant turning point. The rebellion led by Ketuyu shattered the Dahe Confederation's supremacy, ushering in a new era for the Khitans. Li Guozhe and Nieli, both from the Yishihuo tribe, took charge and established the Yaonian Confederation. In this new order, Zuwu Khagan of the Yaonian clan assumed the mantle of supreme ruler, while Nieli, now the military chief, wielded considerable power that often surpassed that of the khagan himself.

Ten Tribes of the Yaonian Confederation

The Yaonian Confederation comprised ten tribes, each playing a unique role in shaping Khitan destiny. Among them were the Danlijie, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, Xiwa, Yaonian, and Yila. Additional tribes such as Yishi, Pin, Chute, Wukui, Niela, Tulübu, and Tuju also contributed to the rich tapestry of the Khitan confederation.

An Lushan's Ambitions (751-755 CE)

As Khitan leaders navigated their political landscape, external forces loomed large. An Lushan, a Tang governor, launched invasions into Khitan territory in 751 and 755. While the Khitans emerged victorious in the first encounter, the second invasion witnessed An Lushan's success. What followed was a rebellion against the Tang, with Khitan troops joining An Lushan's forces. The rebellion, known as the An Lushan Rebellion, marked the beginning of the Tang dynasty's decline.

Rise to Power and Subjugation

Post the An Lushan Rebellion, the Khitans found themselves as vassals of the Uighurs, while still paying tribute to the Tang, a delicate balance that lasted from 755 until the fall of the Uighurs in 840. This period saw 29 recorded tribute activities to the Tang. From 840 onwards, the Khitans continued as tributaries of the Tang until the rise of Abaoji.

Early Life and Cultural Shifts

Born in 872, Abaoji, posthumously Emperor Taizu of Liao, emerged as a pivotal figure in Khitan history. His tribe, the Yila, had grown to become the largest and strongest among the Khitan tribes. Influenced by Han culture, Abaoji's grandfather, Yundeshi, was the first Khitan to practice settled agriculture. Abaoji's uncle, Shulan, delved into masonry and walled city construction, enriching the Yila tribe.

Shift in Leadership (907 CE)

In 907, Abaoji demanded the title of Khagan and ascended as the supreme leader of the Khitans, with support from seven other tribes. In a drastic move, he eliminated other Khitan chieftains, consolidating his rule. However, internal challenges arose in 912 and 913, with family members attempting insurrections, all of which were swiftly crushed.

Expansion and Reinvention

Under Abaoji's reign, the Khitans expanded their territory significantly. Military campaigns targeted neighboring peoples, including the Shiwei, Kumo Xi, Zubu, Khongirad, Jin, Later Tang, Tatars, Balhae, and more. The conquest of Balhae in 926 and the establishment of the puppet Kingdom of Dongdan marked a pinnacle in Khitan dominance.

Abaoji's visionary leadership witnessed the adoption of agrarian practices, Han culture, and the establishment of a distinct Khitan writing system. The Southern and Northern Capitals, a Confucian temple, and the fostering of settled cities showcased Abaoji's ambition to blend Khitan and Han elements. His death in 926 marked the end of an era, leaving behind a legacy of territorial expansion, cultural amalgamation, and the foundation for the enduring influence of the Khitan people.

Taizong's Unexpected Heir (926–947 CE)

As the curtain fell on Abaoji's dynamic reign, the stage was set for his son, Yelü Deguang, to take the reins. In a departure from the expected succession norms, Yelü Deguang wasn't the first in line for the Khitan throne. His elder brother, Yelü Bei, found himself sidelined due to his affinity for intellectual pursuits, a trait frowned upon by the conservative Khitan elites.
Shulü Ping's Influence and Power Play
Shulü Ping, a formidable figure and Yelü Bei's mother, asserted her dominance by becoming the regent, cutting off her right hand as a symbolic gesture buried with her husband. Disapproving of her elder son's Chinese leanings, Shulü Ping orchestrated a shift, ensuring Deguang, a seasoned participant in campaigns, succeeded the throne in 927 after Bei formally withdrew his claim.

Confucian Influences and Political Maneuvers

The dynamics within the Khitan leadership unfolded intriguingly. Yelü Bei's affinity for Chinese culture and Confucian values contrasted sharply with traditional Khitan norms. Abaoji's decision to construct a Confucian temple and institute ritual offerings underscored this shift. However, Bei's political journey took an unexpected turn when, in 930, he fled to the Later Tang court, eventually meeting an unfortunate end at the hands of Shi Jingtang in 937.

Taizong's Expansions and Political Machinations

Under Taizong's rule, the Khitans faced external challenges and embarked on expansions. The Khongirad rebellion in 929 and campaigns against Tangut tribes in 933 highlighted the complexities of maintaining territorial control. However, the most significant territorial gains came from exploiting political instability in the south. Shi Jingtang's rebellion against the Later Tang provided Taizong with an opportunity. The subsequent investment of Shi Jingtang as emperor of Later Jin in 936 and the acquisition of the Sixteen Prefectures in 938 marked a transformative period for the Khitans.

The Great Liao: Triumphs and Downfall

Taizong's triumph in the conquest of Later Jin marked a pivotal moment in Khitan history. The adoption of the dynastic name "Great Liao" symbolized their ascent to power. Ideologically, the Liao considered themselves the legitimate successors of Later Jin, solidifying their claim as rulers of China. However, the victory was short-lived. The occupation of Kaifeng lasted only three months, marred by looting and resentment from the local populace. Taizong's sudden death in 947 added a somber note to this episode.

The subsequent years witnessed a turbulent transition. Yelü Ruan, posthumously Emperor Shizong, declared himself emperor in a complex scenario where internal family struggles played a significant role. Shizong's rule was characterized by a series of rebellions and political maneuvers. The formalization of the dual government system and the closer alignment with the Tang dynasty's administrative model highlighted the ongoing challenges within the Liao dynasty.

Emperor Muzong, also known as the "Sleeping Prince," ascended to the throne, overseeing a reign marked by family instability and internal strife. Plots, conspiracies, and rebellions persisted, creating a backdrop of uncertainty. While Muzong's reign involved assisting Northern Han against Later Zhou attacks, skirmishes with the Song dynasty, and occasional troubles with neighboring tribes, internal challenges remained a constant theme. In 969, Muzong's erratic behavior culminated in his violent demise at the hands of his personal attendants. His death marked the end of an era, as he was the last Liao emperor to succeed Abaoji without direct lineage to Yelü Bei. The Liao dynasty, once a symbol of power and conquest, entered a period of increased vulnerability and internal strife. The chapters of Khitan history continued to unfold, each page revealing new complexities and challenges for this once-mighty empire.

As the Liao Dynasty advanced into its later years, Emperor Jingzong, born Yelü Xian, inherited a realm entangled in a web of diplomatic intricacies and military challenges. The backdrop was the end of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, with the rise of the formidable Song Dynasty in 960. Jingzong's reign saw a delicate dance with the Song, marked by failed negotiations and military conflicts.

With the Song Dynasty consolidating its power, the Khitan rulers navigated a precarious diplomatic landscape. Northern Han, realizing the imminent threat, sought an alliance with the Liao. Monthly missions and failed neutrality treaties unfolded in 971 and 974. The Song, undeterred, launched invasions into Han, triggering Liao intervention. The turning point came in 979 when Emperor Taizong of Song's ambitious campaign to invade the Liao ended in a disastrous defeat on the Gaoliang River. Capitalizing on this victory, Jingzong initiated a punitive expedition in 980, securing triumph. However, a subsequent campaign in 982 met defeat, forcing Jingzong's retreat and revealing the fragility of the Khitan hold over certain territories.

Encounters Beyond Borders

While the conflict with the Song Dynasty took center stage, the Liao Dynasty faced challenges on multiple fronts. Trouble brewed with the Tanguts in 973, and conflicts with remnants of the Balhae people resulted in a failed invasion of Jeongan in 975. The Jurchens added to the woes by looting Liao territory in 973 and 976. In a dramatic turn in 981, captured Chinese soldiers attempted to enthrone a son of Xiyin, leading to internal strife and Xiyin's eventual suicide.

Jingzong's Legacy and Sudden Departure

On October 13, 982, during a hunting trip, Jingzong fell ill and passed away in his camp at the age of 34. His eldest son, the 11-year-old Longxu, was designated as his successor.

With Jingzong's demise, Emperor Shengzong, or Yelü Longxu, took the throne at a tender age of 11. Real power, however, rested in the hands of his mother, Xiao Yanyan, who served as the regent until her death in 1009.

Xiao Yanyan's Capable Rule

Xiao Yanyan emerged as a highly capable ruler, demonstrating prowess in both political strategy and military leadership. Commanding an ordo capable of fielding 10,000 cavalry, she played a pivotal role in the success of Shengzong's reign. Much of Shengzong's achievements were attributed to his mother's astute guidance.

Administrative Advances and Cultural Shifts

Shengzong's reign witnessed notable administrative and cultural developments. The translation of the Tang Code into Khitan in 983 marked an administrative milestone. In 994, a Khitan committing the Ten Abominable Crimes faced Chinese-style punishment. The introduction of a revised Chinese-style legal code in 1027 reflected a continued effort to streamline governance. In the realm of education, the first jinshi examination was conducted in 988, focusing on lyric-meter poetry and rhapsodies. While only Chinese candidates participated, these examinations persisted until the dynasty's end.

Diplomacy and Military Campaigns

Internationally, the Khitans engaged with both the Song Dynasty and Goryeo. Military clashes with the Song in 986 saw initial setbacks, but Khitan victories inflicted lasting damage on the frontier. Goryeo's relations with the Khitans oscillated, with conflicts erupting in 992 but eventually leading to peace through negotiations and territorial agreements. A significant moment came in 1005 when the Chanyuan Treaty was signed between the Khitans and the Song, establishing a delicate balance that lasted over a century. Goryeo, too, saw a resumption of diplomatic exchanges, maintaining peaceful relations with the Khitans.

In the early 1000s, Goryeo faced internal strife, leading to conflicts with the Khitans. The Battle of Gwiju in 1018 dealt a severe blow to the Khitans, but subsequent negotiations and tributes heralded a decade of peace. In 1022, Goryeo officially recognized Hyeonjong's reign, cementing a peaceful relationship that endured until the Liao dynasty's end.

Internal Strife and Border Expansions

As the Liao dynasty entered the 1020s, internal and external challenges persisted. Attempts to extend taxation to the Balhae people triggered resentment. A rebellion in 1029 led by Da Yanlin, a Balhae descendant, was crushed, resulting in the short-lived Xing Liao dynasty. Emperor Shengzong passed away on June 25, 1031, at the age of 60. His deathbed wish saw the enthronement of his eldest son, 15-year-old Yelü Zongzhen,.

Adoption and Betrayal

Emperor Xingzong of Liao, born Yelü Zongzhen in 1031, faced a tumultuous ascent to the throne. Despite being the son of Emperor Shengzong and Consort Xiao Noujin, he was adopted by Empress Qitian (Xiao Pusage). However, his peaceful upbringing took a drastic turn when Noujin, plotting against him, orchestrated Qitian's downfall, declaring herself regent. This shift in power marked the beginning of a series of betrayals and power struggles within the imperial court.

Family Feuds and Political Maneuvers

In 1034, Noujin attempted to replace Xingzong with his younger brother, Zhongyuan, leading to his banishment. Zhongyuan, however, revealed the conspiracy, earning himself the title of "Imperial Younger Brother." Despite efforts at reconciliation in 1037, the court remained divided. Xingzong's attempts to mend relationships included appointing Noujin's brother, Xiao Xiaomu, as northern chancellor in 1039.

Legal Codification and Cultural Policies

Xingzong's reign brought about significant legal changes, culminating in the codification of laws in 1036. The Xinding tiaozhi, comprising 547 articles, compiled laws since Abaoji's reign. However, tensions arose over the universal application of these laws, particularly opposed by the pro-Khitan faction led by Zhongyuan. Cultural policies included relaxing restrictions on the Balhae people and prohibiting Chinese from owning bows and arrows in 1043.

Military Challenges and Diplomacy

Facing military challenges, Xingzong addressed internal distress caused by excessive corvée demands and banditry. In 1042, Liao sought territorial concessions from the Song, leading to increased annual tribute. Despite Li Yuanhao's appeal in 1043 to join an attack on the Song, Xingzong refused. Military setbacks occurred in 1044 when Tanguts rebelled, resulting in a brutal defeat for Liao forces. Subsequent invasions of Western Xia were met with mixed success until peaceful relations were restored by 1053.

The Expanding Empire and Personal Tragedy

In 1044, Datong became the "Western Capital," marking the completion of five capital regions. Xingzong's reign came to a tragic end in 1055 at the age of 39, leaving behind a legacy of military challenges and internal strife.

Smooth Succession and Sinicization

Yelü Hongji, posthumously Emperor Daozong, succeeded his father without a succession crisis. His reign, starting in 1055, witnessed increased sinicization, with officials required to wear Chinese court dress. Daozong, drawn to Chinese learning, poetry, and Buddhism, emphasized education, expanding the imperial examinations and establishing schools and institutions.

Intrigues and Power Struggles

Early years saw the dominance of Xiao Ge and Xiao Ala, with internal conflicts leading to Ala's demise. Yelü Yixin and Yelü Renxian gained influence, but power struggles erupted in 1063. A rebellion led by Zhongyuan and others threatened Daozong's life, showcasing the fragility of Liao's internal politics.

Daozong's Ambivalence and Cultural Policies

Daozong, ambivalent about administration, abandoned governance duties and selected officials by dice rolling. He patronized Buddhist monks and scholars, contributing to the compilation of national history. The emperor's attempt at pro-Han measures faced resistance, exemplified by the rejection of Han-style surnames for Khitan tribes in 1074.

Intrigues, Betrayals, and Economic Hardships

Intrigues continued with Yelü Yixin's manipulations, leading to the demotion and imprisonment of Daozong's heir, Prince Jun. Economic hardships plagued the dynasty due to natural disasters, causing immense suffering and financial strain.

Military Campaigns and the End of an Era

Military conflicts were minimal, with diplomatic resolutions in 1074 and territorial rejections in 1078. However, the northwest saw the subjugation of Zubu tribes, concluding in 1100. Daozong's reign ended in 1101, succeeded by his grandson Yelü Yanxi, marking the close of a complex and challenging era for the Liao dynasty.
As the Liao dynasty navigated internal conflicts, external diplomacy, and economic hardships, the reigns of Xingzong and Daozong reflected the delicate balance between Khitan heritage and Han influence. The intricacies of court politics and the dynasty's interactions with neighboring states shaped an era of uncertainty and change, leaving a lasting impact on the Liao dynasty's legacy.

Emperor Tianzuo ascended to the throne in 1101 and, in his first act, sought vengeance for his family's deaths by desecrating the tomb of those responsible. Meanwhile, natural disasters persisted, and Tianzuo, in 1105, went incognito to witness the people's suffering. During this time, merchant families were barred from exams, indicating continued sinicization. Diplomatically, the Liao solidified ties with the Tanguts, but tensions with the Jurchens were brewing.
The Jurchens, a Tungusic people, had uneasy relations with the Khitans. The situation escalated due to mistreatment and cultural clashes. The Jurchen rebellion gained momentum in 1112, setting the stage for their eventual dominance.
In 1114, Jurchen leader Aguda attacked Ningjiang, marking the beginning of the end for the Liao. Tianzuo's attempts at negotiation failed, and by 1115, Aguda declared himself emperor of the Jin Dynasty. Military clashes ensued, leading to territorial losses for the Liao.
Internal strife plagued the Liao court, with rebellions and defections. In 1116, a rebellion at the Eastern Capital and the rise of the Yuan Dynasty added to the chaos. Despite brief peace talks in 1118, hostilities resumed, culminating in the fall of the Supreme Capital in 1120.

Tianzuo's second wife, Lady Wen, conspired against him in 1121. The Jin forces, aided by internal betrayals, captured key capitals. Tianzuo fled, seeking refuge with Western Xia. However, betrayals and defeats continued, leading to his eventual capture in 1125. The Liao Dynasty fell, marking the end of an era.

Yelü Dashi's Escape
Amid the chaos, Yelü Dashi, a Liao prince, fled northwest and established the Qara Khitai Empire at Kedun in 1130. The new empire expanded westward, securing Qocho and Transoxiana.
Conquest and Multiculturalism
Yelü Dashi's forces conquered Balasaghun in 1141, establishing dominance in Central Asia. The Qara Khitai Empire, known for religious tolerance, reached its zenith under his rule.
Usurpation and Decline
The Naimans, led by Kuchlug, usurped the Qara Khitai Empire in 1211, marking the end of Yelü Dashi's dynasty. Mongol conquest in 1218 sealed the fate of the once-mighty Qara Khitai.

The fall of the Liao Dynasty and the subsequent rise and fall of the Jurchens and Qara Khitai highlight the complexities of medieval geopolitics. These events shaped the course of history in East and Central Asia, leaving a lasting impact on the region.