The Palmyrene Empire

The Palmyrene Empire, a fleeting yet fascinating chapter in history, emerged as a breakaway state from the Roman Empire during the tumultuous Crisis of the Third Century. Named after its capital, Palmyra, this empire extended its reach over the Roman provinces of Syria Palaestina, Arabia Petraea, Egypt, and significant parts of Asia Minor. What makes this short-lived empire stand out is its dynamic ruler, Queen Zenobia, who led the charge for power during a time of chaos and uncertainty.

The seeds of the Palmyrene Empire were sown in the aftermath of the murder of Roman Emperor Alexander Severus in 235. With generals vying for control, the empire's frontiers were neglected and faced constant threats from Carpians, Goths, Alemanni, and the formidable Sassanids in the east. The turning point came in 260 when Shapur I of Persia dealt a severe blow to the Romans at the Battle of Edessa, capturing Emperor Valerian. Amid the power struggle, Palmyrene leader Odaenathus emerged, declared king, and remained nominally loyal to Gallienus, forming an army to defend against the Persian threat.

In 260, Odaenathus achieved a decisive victory over Shapur near the Euphrates, securing a significant win for the Romans. He went on to quash usurpers in 261, earning the title Governor of the East and ruling Syria as the imperial representative. Odaenathus even declared himself "King of Kings," solidifying his authority. However, his reign came to an abrupt end in 267 when he was assassinated alongside his son Hairan.

Following Odaenathus' demise, his ten-year-old son Vaballathus assumed the throne under the regency of Queen Zenobia. While Vaballathus remained in the shadows, Zenobia took charge, carefully avoiding provoking Rome. She adopted the titles of her late husband and focused on securing the empire's borders with Persia and pacifying the volatile Tanukhid tribes in Hauran.

In the spring of 270, with the reign of Emperor Claudius Gothicus in full swing, Queen Zenobia embarked on a strategic expedition against the Tanukhids. Assisted by her capable generals, Septimius Zabbai and Septimius Zabdas, the Palmyrene forces made their mark. Zabdas successfully sacked Bosra, eliminating the Roman governor and securing Roman Arabia. Meanwhile, Zenobia herself attempted to conquer Dumat Al-Jandal, facing challenges but showcasing her determination.

In October of the same year, the Palmyrene juggernaut rolled into Egypt with a formidable army of 70,000 soldiers. The audacious move led to the declaration of Zenobia as the queen of Egypt. Although the Roman general Tenagino Probus managed to reclaim Alexandria in November, his subsequent defeat and escape to the fortress of Babylon marked a turning point. Zabdas besieged Probus, who, captured, chose to end his life.

The momentum of the Palmyrene Empire continued in 271, with Zabbai initiating operations in Asia Minor. Joining forces with Zabdas in the spring, the Palmyrenes subdued Galatia and occupied Ancyra, achieving the zenith of their expansion. However, their attempts to conquer Chalcedon proved futile. Notably, these conquests were carried out under the guise of subordination to Rome, with Zenobia issuing coinage in the name of Emperor Aurelian.

The year 272 marked a turning point as Emperor Aurelian, determined to reclaim lost territories, crossed the Bosphorus and swiftly advanced through Anatolia. Marcus Aurelius Probus played a role in regaining Egypt for Rome, while Aurelian's march continued. The fall of Tyana became legendary, as Aurelian spared the city after a dream featuring the philosopher Apollonius of Tyana, urging mercy.Aurelian's forces entered Issus and proceeded to Antioch, where they clashed with Zenobia in the Battle of Immae. After her retreat to Emesa and Aurelian's capture of Antioch, the Romans systematically dismantled Palmyrene strongholds. The Battle of Emesa saw Zenobia defeated again, compelling her to evacuate to the capital. As Aurelian besieged Palmyra in the summer of 272, negotiations with Zenobia failed, leading to her desperate attempt to seek Persian assistance.The Romans, relentless in their pursuit, captured Zenobia near the Euphrates as she sought refuge with the Persians. With the empress in custody, Palmyrene citizens, facing the harsh realities of the siege, sought peace. The city eventually capitulated, marking the end of the Palmyrene Empire.

Following the fall of Palmyra, Emperor Aurelian opted for a measured response. The city was spared, yet a garrison of 600 archers, led by Sandarion, was stationed to maintain peace. The once-mighty defenses were dismantled, military equipment confiscated, and the fate of Queen Zenobia and her son Vaballathus hung in uncertainty. They, along with their council, were taken to Emesa for trial. The aftermath witnessed the execution of numerous high-ranking Palmyrene officials.

In 273, Palmyra experienced another uprising led by a citizen named Septimius Apsaios. Seeking to seize the imperial power, the rebels contacted the Roman prefect of Mesopotamia, Marcellinus. However, the negotiations were delayed, prompting the rebels to declare a relative of Zenobia named Antiochus as Augustus. Aurelian swiftly responded, aided by a faction within Palmyra led by Septimius Haddudan. While Antiochus was spared, Palmyra faced the wrath of Aurelian, who razed the city.

The motives behind the Palmyrene revolt have sparked debates among historians. Andreas Alföldi saw it as a native ethnic opposition against Rome, while Irfan Shahîd considered it a pan-Arab movement, foretelling the Arab expansion of the Caliphates. Mark Whittow argued that it was a reaction to Rome's weakness in protecting Palmyra from the Persians. Some scholars, including Warwick Ball and Andrew M. Smith II, believed it was a bid for both independence and the Roman throne. Vaballathus' inscriptions suggested aspirations for the Roman imperial throne, challenging the conventional view that the revolt was merely about independence. The Palmyrene royalty's use of Eastern titles, such as "king of kings," demonstrated a departure from Roman political norms, while their conquests were seen as serving Palmyrene commerce. The claim to the Roman imperial rank only emerged in the last regnal year of Zenobia and Vaballathus.

During the mid-twentieth century, the Palmyrene Empire found renewed interest with the emergence of Syrian nationalism. Modern Syrian nationalists celebrated the empire as a distinct Syrian civilization striving to liberate the Levant from Roman oppression. This sentiment was reflected in a Syrian TV show based on Zenobia's life and a biography by Syria's former minister of defense, Mustafa Tlass. The Palmyrene legacy became intertwined with the narrative of Syrian liberation from external dominance.