Toltec Civilization

The Toltec Civilization, a fascinating chapter in ancient Central Mexican history, thrived between the 10th and mid-12th centuries. Inheriting the rich Mesoamerican legacy from their predecessors, the Toltecs left an indelible mark with their remarkable capital, Tollan. This civilization not only shaped its own era but also passed on its heritage to subsequent cultures like the Aztecs, who revered the Toltecs as a prosperous civilization and even claimed lineage from them.

Our knowledge of the Toltec Civilization primarily stems from Aztec and Post-colonial texts that documented oral traditions. While these sources offer valuable insights, it's crucial to approach them with a discerning eye. The Aztecs, in their admiration for all things Toltec, occasionally blurred the lines between myth and fact to strengthen their ancestral connection. To paint a more accurate picture, we must cross-reference this information with earlier Mayan texts and the existing archaeological record.

The roots of the Toltecs can be traced back to the Tolteca-Chichimeca people, who migrated from the north-western deserts to Culhuacan in the Valley of Mexico during the 9th century. According to Aztec accounts, the inaugural Toltec leader was Ce Técpatl Mixcoatl, and his son Ce Acatl Topiltzin, born around 935 or 947, gained renown as a distinguished ruler. Known by the title 'Quetzalcoatl' (Feathered Serpent), he left an enduring legacy. The Toltecs initially settled in Culhuacan but later established their grand capital, Tollan (or Tula, meaning 'place of reeds'), a common term for significant Mesoamerican settlements.

Tollan flourished into a sprawling city covering 14 km², with a population ranging from 30,000 to 40,000. The city's layout, organized in a grid pattern, bears a striking resemblance to the Mayan city of Chichen Itza. Notably, both civilizations revered a cultural hero known as the 'Feathered Serpent'—Quetzalcoatl for the Toltecs and Kukulcan for the Maya. Architectural similarities and the shared cultural figure suggest a close link between these two ancient civilizations. Tollan emerges as a city of unparalleled grandeur, boasting sumptuous palaces and awe-inspiring buildings adorned with gold, jade, turquoise, and quetzal feathers. The wealth that flowed through the city was attributed to the extraordinary talents of Toltec craftsmen, masters of metallurgy and pottery. Their prowess was so remarkable that tales spoke of their potters seemingly teaching the clay to lie, a testament to their unrivaled skill. The legacy of the Toltecs extended to later generations, with Aztec metal-workers and jewelers earning the prestigious title of tolteca.

The Toltecs were not only artisans but also cultivators of nature. They were credited with harnessing the land's abundance, yielding bountiful maize crops and cultivating naturally colored cotton in hues of red, yellow, green, and blue. Although the tangible remnants of their opulent material wealth have been lost to centuries of looting, evidence suggests a flourishing trade in obsidian, a valuable resource mined from nearby Pachuca and used for crafting blades and arrowheads. The archaeological site of Tollan, perched on a limestone promontory, may not match the splendor of the legendary city, but it remains a testament to Toltec ingenuity. Dominating the landscape are two imposing pyramids, a collonaded walkway, a grand palace building, and two ball-courts, all surrounded by a bustling urban hub. Residential areas are grouped around courtyards, each with a central altar and encircled by protective walls.

Contrary to the image of a peaceful civilization, the Toltecs were known for their martial prowess. Surviving architectural sculptures on the pyramids depict warriors in battle attire, each holding an atlatl or spear-thrower. These formidable columns, near-identical and intricately carved, hint at sophisticated workshops capable of mass production. Friezes on the pyramids and a distinctive 40-meter L-shaped wall, a Toltec innovation known as coatepantli, reveal scenes of warlike animals like jaguars, wolves, and coyotes, as well as sacrificial rituals involving rattlesnakes and intertwined skeletons. The imagery also includes feathered creatures, possibly jaguars, and eagles with hearts in their mouths.

Tollan introduces the world to chacmools, reclining stone warriors positioned beside bench-thrones atop the pyramid temple. These figures, clutching vessels on their stomachs to receive sacrificial offerings for the gods, would later become a prominent feature in Mesoamerican temples.

The fall of the Toltec civilization remains shrouded in mystery, a puzzle that historians continue to piece together. As a warlike people, the Toltecs conquered neighboring tribes, imposing tribute without integrating them into their political and religious culture. The empire might have succumbed to the pressures of natural phenomena, such as prolonged droughts, straining its resilience. Internal disputes, hinted at in legendary tales of divine battles between gods like Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, intertwined with historical figures, may also have contributed to the unraveling of the Toltec power structure.
In the mid-12th century, Tollán, the once-glorious capital, bore the scars of violent destruction. Architectural columns and statues were intentionally burnt and buried, while systematic looting by the Aztecs further obscured the remnants of Toltec heritage. Under the leadership of the final Toltec ruler, Huemac, the surviving Toltec populace resettled at Chapultepec on the western banks of Lake Texcoco, an event traditionally dated to either 1156 or 1168.

Despite their enigmatic decline, the Toltecs left an enduring legacy that transcended the confines of their time. The Toltec name held prestige, particularly in the eyes of the Maya and the Aztecs. These later civilizations emulated Toltec religious practices and art, considering the Toltec era a golden age when advancements in writing, medicine, and metallurgy supposedly took root. While the origins of these innovations may have predated the Toltecs, their influence on architecture and sculpture is indisputable.
Images of deities recognizable at Tollan, such as Centeotl, Xochiquetzal, Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, and the iconic feathered serpent linked with Quetzalcoatl, found their way into the Aztec pantheon. Stone carvings depicting cuauhxicalli vessels, chacmools used in sacrifices, and tzompantli (skull racks) all bear witness to the profound impact the Toltecs had on their more famous successors. Regardless of the actual legacy left by the people of Tollan, the Aztecs, in particular, revered the Toltecs above all others. The Aztec expression "Toltecayotl," meaning 'to have a Toltec heart,' encapsulates their deep respect and acknowledgment of the Toltecs' excellence in all things.