Who Were the Druids?

Druids were integral to ancient Celtic society, far more than just religious leaders. They held multiple roles, acting as priests, judges, historians, doctors, and political advisors all rolled into one. Imagine a figure who not only led sacred rituals but also settled legal disputes, preserved oral traditions, and advised kings—this was the druid’s role in society. Yet, despite their prominence, druids left no written records of their own. They were likely literate, but their teachings were passed down orally. Why? It seems they believed that writing would make their sacred knowledge too accessible or perhaps they wanted to keep their memories sharp. Whatever the reason, everything we know about druids comes from external sources like the Romans and Greeks.

The first mentions of druids appear around the 4th century BC, with detailed descriptions emerging from Julius Caesar during his accounts of the Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, druids were among the most respected members of society, standing shoulder to shoulder with the nobility. Their influence was so profound that they could halt battles simply by stepping between warring armies. However, when the Romans invaded Celtic territories, the druids’ power was perceived as a threat. By the 1st century AD, Roman emperors like Tiberius and Claudius took measures to suppress them, and by the 2nd century, druids had largely vanished from the historical record.

Although the druids seemingly disappeared, the term resurfaced around 750 AD in a poem that praised Jesus as being wiser than any druid. In Irish myths and Christian stories, druids are often portrayed as sorcerers who opposed the spread of Christianity. The fascination with druids didn’t end there. During the 18th and 19th centuries, there was a revival of interest in druids, known as Neo-Druidism. This movement sought to recapture the mystery of the ancient druids, although much of what was believed during this period was based on misconceptions.
Etymology of "Druid": The Connection with Nature
The word “druid” has its roots in Latin and Greek, but it originally stems from a Celtic term that might mean “oak-knower” or “great sage.” Druids were deeply connected to nature, particularly oak trees, which were considered sacred.

While druids were revered, they were also associated with darker practices, particularly human sacrifice. Ancient Greek and Roman writers, including Julius Caesar, described druids conducting human sacrifices, often choosing criminals as victims. However, when criminals were scarce, innocent people might have been sacrificed. One of the most notorious methods was burning victims alive in a giant wooden structure, now famously known as the “wicker man.” Another 10th-century text, the Commenta Bernensia, detailed different methods of sacrifice for various gods, such as drowning, hanging, and burning. These sacrifices were often overseen by druids, who acted as intermediaries between the people and the gods, interpreting divine will through the rituals.
Archaeological Evidence and Controversy: Did Druidic Sacrifices Really Happen?
There is some archaeological evidence that suggests human sacrifices may have taken place, particularly at sites in ancient Gaul. Mass graves found at places like Gournay-sur-Aronde and Ribemont-sur-Ancre have been interpreted as possible evidence of sacrifices to war gods. However, some experts argue that these graves might not be evidence of sacrifice but rather burial sites for honored warriors. This raises the question: how much of what we know about druidic sacrifices is true, and how much is Roman or Greek propaganda? Some historians believe that the stories of human sacrifice were exaggerated to depict the Celts as barbaric, thus justifying Roman conquests. Others, like Celtic literature expert Nora Chadwick, argue that druids were more likely philosophers and spiritual leaders rather than the bloodthirsty figures portrayed by the Romans.

Despite the darker accounts, druids were deeply involved in spiritual and philosophical teachings. Ancient sources, including Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor, compared druidic beliefs to those of the Pythagoreans, particularly the concepts of the immortality of the soul and reincarnation. Druids believed that after death, the soul moved into a new body, which influenced their approach to life and death. Caesar noted that druids emphasized this belief because it helped remove the fear of death, which they saw as essential for developing courage. Besides teaching about the soul, druids also instructed their followers on the stars, natural philosophy, and the mysteries of religion.

Druids also play significant roles in mythological stories, particularly in Irish folklore. They are often depicted as powerful seers and advisors to kings, capable of prophecy and other mystical abilities. One famous druid is Cathbad, the chief druid in the court of King Conchobar mac Nessa of Ulster, who could foresee future events and played a crucial role in the tales surrounding Deirdre of the Sorrows. Another legendary druid is Amergin Glúingel, a bard and judge for the Milesians. According to myth, he used his mystical powers to help his people conquer Ireland, earning the title of Chief Ollam of Ireland. Interestingly, Irish mythology also features powerful female druids, known as "bandruí," who held significant roles in both cultural and religious life. Figures like Bodhmall, Tlachtga, and Biróg are remembered for their influence and contributions.

The earliest literary mentions of druids come from the classical world, primarily Greece and Rome. Archaeologist Stuart Piggott compared the attitudes of these classical authors toward the druids to the way 15th and 18th-century Europeans perceived the societies they encountered in the Americas and South Sea Islands. These writers often viewed foreign societies through a lens of “primitivism,” emphasizing what they considered barbaric qualities. Historian Nora Chadwick categorized classical accounts of druids into two groups: the "Posidonian" tradition, which took a critical view of Iron Age societies, and the "Alexandrian" group, which offered a more sympathetic portrayal. However, some scholars argue that these accounts may have been fictional, created by classical writers to reinforce the notion of a barbaric "other" beyond the Greco-Roman world.

Julius Caesar’s Commentarii de Bello Gallico offers the earliest detailed description of druids, portraying them as integral to Gaulish society. According to Caesar, druids oversaw divine worship, sacrifices, and rituals, and were responsible for maintaining social order. He also noted that they believed in the immortality of the soul. However, Caesar’s account has been widely criticized for its accuracy. Some historians believe that Caesar may have exaggerated the power of the druids to justify his military campaigns in Gaul. Despite these criticisms, some historians, like Norman J. DeWitt and Miranda Aldhouse-Green, argue that Caesar’s accounts may hold some truth, even if they are idealized or embellished.

Beyond Caesar, other classical writers also commented on the druids. Cicero mentioned meeting a Gallic druid named Divitiacus, who was knowledgeable about nature and practiced divination. Diodorus Siculus described druids as philosophers and theologians, while Strabo identified three types of honored figures in Gaulish society: bards, ovates, and druids. Tacitus, a Roman senator and historian, also mentioned druids during the Roman invasion of the island of Mona (modern-day Anglesey), describing them as terrifying figures who invoked curses upon Roman soldiers. Despite this, Tacitus portrayed druids negatively, emphasizing their supposed ignorance and savagery.

In the Middle Ages, after the Christianization of Ireland and Wales, druids continued to appear in various sources, mainly in tales and stories. These were often written by Christian monks, who portrayed druids as sorcerers with supernatural powers. Their role in society diminished with the advent of Christianity, and they were gradually relegated to the status of mere sorcerers in Irish law texts. In Welsh literature, druids are less prominent, and the term commonly associated with druids, dryw, referred to prophets rather than pagan priests. Some historians suggest that the term may have been borrowed from Irish or English usage, where it referred to magicians and magic.

The accounts of druids from the classical world are a mixed bag, colored by the biases and motivations of those who wrote them. Whether these figures were revered philosophers, feared sorcerers, or simply constructs of a Roman narrative, the truth remains shrouded in mystery. Today, the fascination with druids continues, as we seek to understand the true nature of these ancient figures who once held so much power and influence.