Partition of Poland and the Invasion of France

Although Prussia had gained territory under Frederick the Great, it was still weaker than larger European powers like Austria, France, and Russia. To strengthen Prussia, Frederick turned his attention toward expanding into Poland. At the time, Poland was a huge kingdom covering 284,000 square miles with 20 million people. It bordered Austria, Russia, and Prussia. The plan to divide Poland is often blamed on either Empress Catherine of Russia or Frederick himself. After the King of Poland, Augustus, died in October 1763, Catherine used bribery to put her ally, Stanislaus Poniatowski, on the throne in September 1764.

Poland was struggling with internal problems, making it easy for its neighbors to take advantage. Secret talks between Russia, Prussia, and Austria led to a plan to divide Poland. At first, Russia was hesitant, but Frederick kept pushing. Meetings between Frederick and Austria’s Joseph II in 1769 and 1770 finalized the plan. The partition split Polish land among the three powers: Russia got 87,500 square miles, Austria took 62,500 square miles, and Prussia received 9,464 square miles. Even though Prussia’s share was the smallest, it was very valuable. The division happened through bribes and threats, with armies placed along Poland’s borders to stop any resistance. Maria Theresa of Austria felt guilty about taking part, saying, “Public law cries to heaven against us, and natural justice condemns our actions.” But she eventually gave in after pressure from her son, Joseph II, and her prime minister, Kaunitz. Frederick claimed the partition was needed to keep Prussia safe and prosperous. He made big changes in the Polish areas he took, but these often came at the expense of the local people’s freedoms. He focused on making everything efficient and successful, no matter the cost.

Frederick the Great died in 1786 after a life filled with military victories and administrative achievements. In his last days, he suffered a lot physically and stayed firm in his belief that there was no afterlife. He wanted to be buried next to his dogs in Sanssouci, but his wishes were ignored, and he was buried with his father in Potsdam. During Frederick’s rule, Prussia almost doubled in size. But his successor, Frederick William II, was a weak leader who wasted resources and left the kingdom in financial trouble.

Inspired by the French Revolution, Polish leaders tried to improve their government. In 1791, they introduced a modern constitution with a hereditary monarchy, religious tolerance, and early steps to free serfs. Edmund Burke praised these changes, calling them “probably the most pure public good ever yet conferred on mankind.”

However, these reforms worried Russia and Prussia, who saw them as a threat. In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko led the Poles in a rebellion and briefly took back Warsaw. But Russia and Prussia crushed the uprising. After a brutal siege of Warsaw, tens of thousands died, and the Polish king, Stanislaus, was captured. Poland was divided again. By the end of the partitions, Prussia had gained 57,000 square miles and 2.55 million Polish people. Poet Thomas Campbell wrote about Poland’s downfall in his poem The Pleasures of Hope, mourning the loss of the nation.

Frederick William II ruled during the French Revolution, which challenged monarchies across Europe. Prussia and Austria teamed up to stop revolutionary France. In 1792, they gathered an army of 140,000 soldiers, led by the Duke of Brunswick, to invade France. But their campaign failed when French revolutionary forces fought back unexpectedly well.