Crisis of the Third Century

The Roman Empire, known for its strength, structure, and longevity, almost collapsed during a chaotic period known as the Crisis of the Third Century. Spanning roughly from 235 to 284 CE, this half-century saw the mighty empire fragment into pieces, rocked by invasions, civil wars, economic collapse, and political instability. Over 20 emperors came and went in just 50 years, often exiting the scene through violent means. To understand how an empire that had stood strong for centuries nearly came undone, we need to start with a murder.

In 235 CE, Emperor Alexander Severus was assassinated by his own troops. Despite his attempts at diplomacy and reform, Alexander’s rule was overshadowed by his mother, Julia Mamaea, who made most of the decisions. She prioritized financial control over military favor, even cutting soldier pay to fund her own projects. When Alexander chose to bribe invading Germanic tribes instead of engaging them in combat, it was the final straw for his troops. The result was brutal: both he and his mother were killed. What followed was the beginning of a downward spiral.

After Alexander came Maximinus Thrax, the first in a long line of so-called "Barracks Emperors." These were men elevated to power by the military rather than through noble lineage or Senate approval. Their rule depended heavily on keeping the army satisfied, and if they failed, their reigns were cut short—often by assassination. Maximinus himself was no exception. His reign was plagued by war and unrest, and he was eventually overthrown by his own soldiers. What followed was a revolving door of emperors, many of whom met tragic ends. Gordian I and II tried to seize power but were quickly defeated—one died in battle, the other by suicide. Then came Balbinus and Pupienus, whose leadership was so shaky that the Praetorian Guard murdered them within months. The empire had lost its sense of stability, and chaos reigned.

It became a recurring pattern: each new emperor promised peace and order, only to be overthrown or killed. Philip the Arab tried to secure succession by making his son co-emperor. Both were killed. Decius did the same, and both he and his son perished in battle against the Goths. Valerian, another tragic figure, was captured by the Persian Empire and allegedly suffered a humiliating fate—some accounts claim his body was stuffed and displayed after his death. The Empire was being torn apart not just from external threats but from its own crumbling leadership.

As Rome’s central authority weakened, regional leaders took matters into their own hands. In 260 CE, a general named Postumus broke away in the west, forming what became known as the Gallic Empire, encompassing modern-day France, Germany, Britain, and Spain. Around the same time in the east, Queen Zenobia of Palmyra established a separate empire that included Syria and Egypt. What’s striking about both Postumus and Zenobia is that they didn’t consider themselves rebels in the traditional sense. Postumus continued to honor Roman traditions, claiming his actions were for the good of the empire. Zenobia printed coins with both her son and the Roman emperor, hinting at a hope for legitimacy and unity. These leaders weren’t trying to tear Rome apart—they were trying to protect the regions they governed while Rome floundered.

Then came Aurelian—a hardened general with a reputation for discipline and tactical brilliance. In 270 CE, he became emperor and launched a campaign not just to protect Rome’s borders but to reunify the fractured empire. He fought off barbarian invasions from the Vandals and Goths, then turned his attention eastward to deal with Zenobia. Zenobia’s forces, led by her general Zabdas, faced Aurelian in the Battle of Immae in 272 CE. Aurelian executed a clever maneuver, faking a retreat and luring Zenobia’s cavalry into a trap. When they regrouped at Emesa, he used the same tactic again. Zenobia was eventually captured, ending the Palmyrene Empire. Although stories of her being paraded through Rome in golden chains exist, they are likely exaggerated. Aurelian understood that humiliating a female leader might reflect poorly on Rome’s own prestige. Aurelian didn’t stop there. He marched west and confronted the remnants of the Gallic Empire, now led by Tetricus I. Rumors suggest Tetricus secretly asked for mercy ahead of the battle at Chalons in 274 CE. Whether or not that’s true, Aurelian crushed his forces and chose to spare Tetricus and his son, even giving them positions in the Roman government. This act of mercy showed that Aurelian had learned something critical: unity through diplomacy could be just as powerful as unity through force.

Just as it seemed Rome might truly stabilize, Aurelian was murdered by his own officers, likely due to fears he would purge them. But the groundwork he laid didn’t go to waste. A few years later, Diocletian came to power and completed the reforms Aurelian had started. Diocletian realized that the empire had become too vast and complicated to be ruled by one man. He reorganized the administration, strengthened the military, and introduced a new system called the Tetrarchy—dividing the empire into four parts, each ruled by a different leader. This structure brought much-needed stability and allowed for more efficient governance. He also reformed the economy, addressed inflation, and restructured the army so troops were no longer based primarily in their home regions—cutting down on local loyalties that had caused so much trouble. His decision to split the empire into Eastern and Western halves made management more practical and laid the foundation for what would become the Byzantine Empire.