How Popes and Emperors Battled for Power in the Middle Ages

Back in the heart of the Middle Ages, one big question stirred up more debate than any other — who was supposed to have the final say over Europe? Was it the Pope, the head of the Church, or the Emperor, the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire? People agreed there should be one leader for the church and one for the government, but when it came to deciding which one held more power, that’s where the arguments began. For a long time, some folks believed the Pope represented the soul, while the Emperor was like the body. And just like the soul guides the body, they believed the Pope should guide the Emperor. Others pointed to a Bible story where the apostles showed Jesus two swords, and Jesus answered, “It is enough.” Supporters of the Pope claimed this was a sign that both spiritual power and political power belonged to the Church, because the swords were in the hands of Peter — the very figure symbolizing the Papacy. And the comparisons didn’t stop there. People even used the sun and the moon to make their point. The Pope, they said, was the sun, shining with light and power, while the Emperor was the moon, only reflecting what the Pope gave him. Of course, those who stood behind the Emperor had their own opinions — they didn’t like the idea of playing second fiddle to anyone, even the Pope.

Things got even more heated when a German ruler named Frederick Barbarossa became Emperor. One of the Pope’s close advisers boldly claimed that Frederick only had his crown because the Pope allowed it, like a landlord loaning a knight some land. As you can imagine, this didn’t sit well with the Germans. The outrage forced the Pope to take back what his adviser had said, but the damage was already done — the rivalry between the Empire and the Papacy wasn’t going away. The real storm, though, started later, when Frederick II, Barbarossa’s grandson, took the throne. Frederick wasn’t just any ruler — he controlled Germany, Northern Italy, and even Southern Italy, thanks to his mother’s inheritance. That gave him the title of King of the Two Sicilies, and it also gave the Pope a reason to panic. If one man controlled that much territory, especially land so close to Rome, what was stopping him from trying to take over the city itself?

Frederick II wasn’t just powerful — he was also clever. But cleverness wasn’t enough to avoid trouble with the Church. He promised to lead a crusade to the Holy Land, but kept postponing the journey. The Pope, losing patience, excommunicated him — cutting him off from the Church entirely. When Frederick finally did set out on his crusade, he faced the same punishment again, this time for heading off without the Pope’s permission. Despite the Church turning its back on him, Frederick managed to pull off something impressive — he negotiated the return of Jerusalem without fighting a single battle. But even this success wasn’t enough to please the Pope, who excommunicated him yet again. No matter what Frederick did, the Pope was never satisfied. The fight between them dragged on for years, mostly over control of Southern Italy. Even after Frederick’s death in 1250, the conflict wasn’t over. One by one, his sons and grandsons were defeated or killed, and the Papacy finally installed a new king in Southern Italy — someone who wouldn’t dare challenge the Pope’s authority.

With Frederick and his family out of the way, the Pope stood as the undisputed power across Europe. For a while, Germany was left without a proper Emperor, and when one was finally chosen, he had no interest in challenging the Pope or trying his luck in Italy. One ruler even famously warned others by calling Italy “the den of the lion,” where many rulers had entered but none had ever come back out victorious. The title of Holy Roman Emperor lost its old meaning. It became just another fancy title for whoever ruled Germany, and the days when the Emperor and the Pope fought as equals were over. The Popes, feeling untouchable, started acting like kings themselves. One Pope, Boniface VIII, even dressed in royal robes, held a scepter, and declared, “I am Pope; I am Emperor!” But this kind of thinking wouldn’t last forever.

While the Pope and Emperor were busy fighting for power, Europe was starting to change. Long before this, most people lived in tribes — huge family groups tied together by blood. But as villages grew into towns and towns grew into cities, that old way of life faded. In its place came something new: feudalism. Feudal life worked more like a chain of promises than family loyalty. Ordinary people served a local lord in exchange for land and protection, and in return, they owed the lord their loyalty. At this point, the idea of being part of a “country” didn’t even exist. There was no flag to salute, no anthem to sing. People didn’t think of themselves as Germans or French or English — they thought of themselves as the subjects of whoever ruled their patch of land. But after the Crusades, the balance began to shift. Kings started pulling power away from local lords, claiming full control over their lands, armies, and laws. France and England were at the front of this change, with strong kings building real governments and no longer answering to the Church like they once did. The Popes, who had grown used to pushing monarchs around, suddenly found their influence shrinking.

One of the most dramatic turning points came when Pope Boniface VIII clashed with King Philip IV of France. Their argument started over money but quickly spiraled into something much bigger. At one point, Philip’s men even attacked the Pope while he was staying in a quiet Italian town. They held him prisoner, and though they let him go a few days later, the shock and humiliation were too much. Not long after, Boniface died.

But the troubles for the Church didn’t end there. The next group of Popes packed up and left Rome, settling in a French city called Avignon. For nearly seventy years, the Papacy stayed there, and most people believed the French kings were pulling the strings behind the scenes. This time became known as the “Babylonian Captivity,” a name borrowed from the Bible, where the Jews were taken away from their homeland and held in Babylon. When the Papacy finally moved back to Rome, the situation didn’t improve — it actually got worse. Arguments about who should be Pope reached a boiling point, and soon there were two Popes at once: one in Rome, the other in Avignon. Countries had to pick sides, and the Church split in two.

An English writer named John Wycliffe wrote about how deeply this split had divided people. Supporters of one Pope despised the other, and the rivalry left the Church in total chaos. A council was called to try to fix things, but instead of solving the problem, it only made it messier. A third Pope was elected, meaning there were now three men claiming to be the rightful leader of the Church. It took nearly forty years for the mess to be sorted out. Finally, another council removed all three Popes and picked one new Pope that everyone agreed on. The Church was whole again, but its reputation had been badly damaged.

Even though the Papacy was finally reunited, its golden age was over. The world had changed too much. Powerful kings in France, England, and other rising nations had no interest in being ruled from Rome. The days when Popes could command emperors and kings were gone. A writer in the 1400s, who would later become Pope himself, looked back on those times and remarked that the Pope and Emperor had become more like characters in old stories or paintings rather than real rulers shaping the future. The Middle Ages had come to a close, and a new age was beginning — one where countries stood on their own, followed their own kings.