Khazar Empire: A Lost Kingdom of the Steppe

The Khazar Empire was once a powerful kingdom that controlled important trade routes and influenced both Europe and Asia. Though not as famous as other empires, the Khazars played a key role in history, ruling lands between the Volga River and the Black Sea.

Khazars were a confederation of various tribes, including the Oğurs, Onoğurs, and Bulğars. These groups originally belonged to an older alliance known as the Tiele, which migrated westward due to pressures from stronger enemies. By the 4th century CE, they had settled in the regions surrounding the Volga River, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea. Some traced their origins to Mongolia and South Siberia, gradually forming a distinct kingdom after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire. Leadership in the Khazar Empire likely stemmed from the Ashina clan, the same lineage that ruled the Western Turkic Khaganate. Chinese and Islamic sources suggest ties between the Khazars and the Ashina. One of their early leaders, Yǐpíshèkuì, played a crucial role in the empire's rise but lost control around 651. As the Khazars expanded westward, they assimilated other steppe tribes, such as the Akatziroi, who had previously allied with the Byzantine Empire against Attila the Hun. By 630, the Khazar state formally emerged as the Göktürk Khaganate declined. The Göktürks had expanded into the Volga region by 549, pushing the Avars westward into present-day Hungary. As the Ashina clan seized control of the Rouran Khaganate in 552, their territorial expansions brought them into contact with the Byzantine Empire, forming alliances against Persia. However, internal conflicts weakened the Göktürks, allowing new states like Old Great Bulgaria and the growing Khazar Empire to rise.

By the late 7th century, the Khazars had firmly established their kingdom, governing vast territories that extended from the Volga to the Dnieper River. Around 670, they absorbed the Onoğur-Bulğar confederation and positioned themselves as the rightful heirs of the Göktürks. Some historians even refer to their rule as "Pax Khazarica" because they maintained stability and safeguarded trade routes. An 11th-century Persian writer ranked the Khazar ruler among the most powerful leaders of the era, alongside the emperors of Byzantium and China.

The Khazar political system was unique, featuring a dual-ruler structure. The Bek held military and administrative authority, while the Qağan (or Khan) occupied a more symbolic and religious role. The Qağan was considered almost sacred and rarely appeared in public. Some sources describe a bizarre ritual where new Qağans were nearly strangled before ascending the throne, ruling only as long as they wished—after which they were executed. The Bek, however, had to show utmost reverence, even bowing and walking barefoot in the Qağan’s presence. The Khazars maintained power through a loyal personal guard, often recruited from the Khwārazmians. Their military was well-organized, with a standing army of 7,000 to 12,000 soldiers. However, in times of war, they could summon up to 100,000 troops, including their allies. Khazar warriors were renowned for their discipline—retreat was not tolerated, and any soldier who returned home after a lost battle faced execution. Khazaria was one of the most ethnically diverse empires of its time, hosting over 25 different groups. Some sources distinguish between "White Khazars" and "Black Khazars," though this likely indicated social or political divisions rather than racial differences. Early Muslim travelers described them as having light skin, blue eyes, and reddish hair, while others compared them to Central Asian peoples. Archaeological findings suggest a blend of European and Mongolic features among their population.

The Khazars' economy thrived on their control of crucial trade routes between Europe and the Middle East. Unlike most nomadic empires, they combined trade with agriculture and heavily taxed merchants. However, their involvement in the medieval slave trade remains controversial, as they facilitated the capture and sale of Slavic and other northern peoples to Muslim markets. Their capital, Atil, consisted of two main districts—one for the ruling Khazars and another for the multicultural population of Jews, Christians, Muslims, and traders.

A vital medieval trade network passed through Khazaria, linking Viking traders from Scandinavia to the Islamic world. Slaves captured during Viking raids in Ireland and Eastern Europe were funneled through Khazar lands and sold in Abbasid markets. In return, the Khazars received silver, silk, and luxury goods, amassing great wealth. However, the rise of new trade routes through Volga Bulgaria and Khwarazm gradually weakened their economic dominance.

The Khazars played a key role in Byzantine strategy. The Byzantines cleverly pitted steppe warrior tribes against each other to avoid facing them all at once. The Byzantines often allied with groups like the Pechenegs, whom they paid for military support. The Khazars, whom the Byzantines referred to as "Turks," became valuable allies in the 7th century. When the Persian Empire besieged Constantinople in 626, Emperor Heraclius secured an alliance with the Western Turkic leader, Tong Yabghu Qağan, by offering gifts and proposing a marriage between his daughter and the Qağan's family. Later, Byzantine emperors strengthened ties with the Khazars through marriage alliances. Emperor Justinian II, after being exiled, found refuge with the Khazars and married Theodora, the sister of the Khazar ruler. Emperor Leo III arranged another marriage between his son, Constantine V, and a Khazar princess, Tzitzak, who later took the Christian name Irene. Their son, Leo IV, earned the nickname "the Khazar."

By the 10th century, the Khazar Empire faced growing threats. The Rus', a rising power centered in Kiev, began challenging Khazar dominance over trade routes. Initially, the Rus' paid the Khazars for passage along the Volga River, but tensions escalated when the Khazars attempted to restrict their access. The Rus', emboldened by their military strength, launched attacks on Khazar territory, gradually eroding their influence. In the 960s, Sviatoslav I of Kiev launched a devastating campaign against the Khazars, destroying key fortresses such as Sarkel and sacking Atil, their capital. The once-thriving trade centers of Khazaria fell into ruin, and its population scattered. Following their collapse, their former lands were taken over by new powers, including the Rus', Pechenegs, and Kipchaks. Some Khazars assimilated into these groups, while others—especially those of Jewish descent—may have migrated westward to Eastern and Central Europe. Though the Khazars faded from political power, their legacy endured. They influenced the development of the Rus' state and left an imprint on medieval trade and governance. By the 11th and 12th centuries, their presence in historical records diminished, yet their impact on Eurasian history remained undeniable.